Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. Overall, a positive relationship between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Which correctly answers whether a causal relationship can be inferred?

No, because internal validity was not established.

Explanation:

Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. Overall, a positive relationship between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Which correctly answers whether a causal relationship can be inferred?

No, because internal validity was not established.

No, because covariance was not established.

Yes; covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity were established.

No, because temporal precedence was not established.